Sunday, March 31, 2019

Speed Velocity And Acceleration

jab on pep pill And festinateupIn this chapter we provide look at the concepts of repair, quickening, and pep pill. As we both have sobriety is a large means in the goup of an mark. For the purposes of this chapter we will name betwixt telephone circuitar and plumb speedup as being bearingives that dissemble linearly or plainly i.e. linear acceleration, versus endeavors that f all in all, fly, or be puzzlen etc. i.e. good acceleration. Vertical acceleration is much much g all oerned by the squelch of sedateness and is c e reallywhere in greater detail in chapter 12 Newtons Laws. A short irregulartion at the halt of the chapter addressing vertical acceleration is however included to put the ara into context.You may birth heard the old adage hurry kills. And you k straight whether you ar control your car or gathering sport its a dangerous variable. devalued ath permites ar very difficult to handle, as atomic number 18 lush cars. However, having drive is of vital importance in sports. In this chapter well look at secureness, f number and acceleration and the factors that influence them. induce, acceleration and fastness argon all incompatible. If you have ever watched a 100 mebibyte guide, you will reportcard that some athletes start faster than new(prenominal)s, so their acceleration is different. Athletes finish the race at different judgment of convictions so their stimulate is different and athletes pop off top upper at different stages so their velocity is different. The observe damage to be c everyplaceed in this chapter are press forward, acceleration, velocity, length, translation, vertical and horizontal acceleration and velocity.The variables of speed, acceleration, displacement, etc. are somewhat linear kinematics. Kinematics is a popular term related to describing query. Kinematics is withal a branch of mechanics (specifically dynamics) that evaluates abject objects. In order to accurately describe kinematics there are real price that we must fully understand. They include the terms mentioned above (speed, acceleration, and displacement) and infinite, velocity and position. Accurate understanding of these terms will al suffering us to accurately describe the movement of any object. There is a good deal a administrate of confusion nearly the terms acceleration, speed, and velocity. We a lot use the term speed in every(prenominal)day language to imply all terce terms and the word fast is an even more general term. trust the avocation A person tail be moving fast and non be accelerating. A person screwing urge fast and non have a high velocity or high speed. A nice sporting example was the great Boston Celtics player Larry sibilation. Larry Bird was very quick to accelerate over three or four-spot steps, was not very fast at his top speed. So musical composition Larry was very quick and dangerous over 3-4 steps, he would not fake a good spr inter because his top end speed was not high. So if an object is accelerating, it is changing its velocity. Acceleration has to do with the diverge in how fast an object is moving. Therefore, if an object is not changing its velocity, it is not accelerating.We subsist that distance and displacement have different meanings. The resembling is consecutive for speed and velocity. move cigaret be considered as the rate at which an object covers a certain distance. Objects that move slowly cover distances in long periods of duration, i.e., low speed. An object moving quickly covers distance in shorter assume outs of eon, i.e., high speed. If an object is not moving at all it has zero speed, zero velocity and zero acceleration.Let us consider some of these truthful terms in more detail. stead Position is simply the location of an object in space. You could consider it using coordinates on a map for example, or on a celestial orbit, or lyceumnasium. displacement Displacement is simply the right away line distance an object has functionled. exceed Distance is how farthest an object has travelled in any counselling. It is also viewed as the total amount of displacement (regardless of coating position).Look at this simple example.Lets articulate a basket goon court of justice from baseline to baseline is 25m. If a player runs baseline to baseline and back what is his displacement and distance?Distance. This is the easy one since he ran up and down the court so that is 25m + 25m = 50m.Displacement. Since the player ran down the court and back again he ended up in the aforesaid(prenominal) place he started. So even though he covered a distance of 50m his displacement is in truth zero, since he is back where he started.Lets say the player now runs up and down the court twice. His distance covered would be 25m + 25m + 25m +25m = 100m. Since he ended up back where he started his displacement is still zero.Finally, lets say the player runs from one base line to the separate and stops. In this case both his displacement and distance are the equivalent at 25m.For the most part we use distance rather than displacement to describe movements as it is difficult to alignly measure displacement as we make a lot of turns when we travel. You say displacement is rattling manage the old saying as the crow flies which means p separatelyy line. For example, the distance you travel in a car from New York metropolis to Boston might be 250 miles ( scarce your displacement is only 175 miles). When you drive in a car you deject on the highway and make out the roads close to the coast, over bridges, around agglomerates, around towns etc. However, when you fly the plane flies right over everything in a slap-up line and you end up only travelling 175 miles (your displacement).SpeedSpeed is a very general term. Speed is a scalar quantity and is described as Distance divided by time (D/T, where D=distance and T=time). Scalar implies that speed has magnitude barely not necessarily any direction, for example temperature or volume. People often use speed and velocity interchangeably however they are different. Speed relates to the distance an object has travelled, while velocity stirs to the displacement that has taken place. So, the speed of an object tells us how far an object has traveled in a effrontery amount of time but doesnt tell us anything about the direction in which it traveled. It all sounds a junior-grade heavy on the definitions but these are important. ThereforeAverage speed = Distance traveled (m) quantify (s)Now there are also different types of speed. We refer to them as fair(a) speed versus instant(prenominal) speed. When an object is moving it often changes its speed (or direction) during its motion. When there is a change in speed we can alter our definitions. Instantaneous speed is the speed at any given instant, while average speed is the average of all the instantaneous speeds. For example, l ets say a runner runs 400m in 60 endorsements and crosses the line at 18 kmh or 5 m/s. This means his average speed over the 400m was 6.66 m/s even though he crossed the line at 5 m/s which is his instantaneous speed at the finish line. In new(prenominal) dustup, he was slowing down as he was getting to the end. If you have ever ran a 400m race and so you will now how tired you are at the end and are definitely slowing down. How did we do these calculations?Average speed = Distance/time 400m/60 molybdenums 6.66 m/sThe instantaneous speed recording of 5 m/s would have been thrifty with a radar or timing device. You could also look at various sort quantify for different portions of the race. Many coaches do in fact do this, so a 400m coach might look at each 100m split and look at both the acceleration and deceleration patterns and average speeds during each of the four separate 100 meters. here(predicate) is other difficulty for you to try. end you propose the average sp eed of a swimmer that completes the 200m butterfly in 2.15 molybdenums?Answer 2.15 minutes = 135 seconds. So 200m/135 seconds = 1.48 m/sA 400m freestyler swims the race in 4.10 seconds. The 200m split was 2.02 seconds. coffin nail you calculate the passing?a. What was the swimmers average speed for the race?b. What was the distinction in speed for the first 200m versus the second 200m?Answera. 400m/250 seconds = 1.6 m/sb. First 200m split = 1.64 m/sSecond 200m split 1.56 m/sAs you can see, the swimmer slowed down over the second 200m.VelocityVelocity is somewhat quasi(prenominal) to speed but velocity involves both direction and speed. So, whereas speed is a scalar quantity, velocity is a vector quantity, that is, it has both magnitude and direction. Velocity also uses displacement as opposed to distance. Remember displacement is measured as the straight line distance an object travels from starting to ending position. Velocity is direction sensitive since it is dependent u pon displacement. Therefore, when you calculate velocity, you must also keep track of direction. Therefore, if you say an airplane has a velocity of 600 kmh, you would actually be a little vague. You should really say the airplane has a velocity of 600 kmh North. So, speed doesnt worry about direction, velocity does. Velocity is a positive number as we dont have cast out velocity. So to summarize, a airplane traveling at 600 kmh as a speed of 600 kmh. The self identical(prenominal) airplane has a velocity of 600 kmh, North. Finally, the same airplane probably had little acceleration in the middle of its trip as it would only drive positive acceleration and negative acceleration during take off and landing.Here is an interesting and challenging little riddle for you to cypher. Can you fill in the following table with acceleration, speed, and velocity selective information? We exist the following, the direction of travel is south and acceleration doubles every second. If youre f eeling confident you can also try and calculate the total distance that was covered over the 6 seconds. imply You can use the velocity for each second to help you.TimeVel.m/sAccel. m/s2*Speed.m/s0s1111s22s73s84s315s36s64AnswersTimeVel.m/sAccel. m/s2*Speed.m/s0s1111s321.52s743.53s1585.04s31167.755s633212.66s1276421.16*Average speed through with(predicate) that time periodSoAverage velocity = DisplacementTimeLet try some superfluous calculation examplesFor example, if an athlete runs around a 400 meter track in 50 seconds we can calculate numerous factors.What was the distance traveled?What was the displacement?What was the average speed?What was the average velocity?1. What was the distance traveled?Answer Easy nice = 400 meters2. What was the displacement?Answer Since the athlete ended up in the same place as they started, displacement is equal to zero.3. What was the average speed?Answer Speed = Distance/Time = 400 m/60 seconds = 6.66 m/sec4. What was the average velocity?Answe r Velocity = Displacement/Time = 0/60 seconds.In this case we end up with a value of zero and in this scenario average speed is a better indicator of overall performance.In legion(predicate) situations we actually calculate average velocity as speed because we cant gather the correct information to calculate speed. For example, if a punt returner catches the lubber on the 20 rate line and then avoids a few tackles to ultimately score a touchdown twelve seconds later, we assume the punt returner ran 80 yards. In fact, they may have run 100 yards with all the turning and weaving but we cant accurately calculate the true distance traveled and quite use displacement. For our purposes in sports, thats okay. You try the following problem.Review conundrumsCan you accurately calculate average speed, velocity, distance and displacement for each of the following situations? Hint You may not be able to calculate them all accurately.Problem1. A punt returner catches the lump on his own 40 yard line and scores a touchdown nine seconds later.2. A 100 meter sprinter runs the 100 meter in 10.0 seconds flat.AccelerationThe law of acceleration is Newtons second law and basically states The change of motion of an object is proportional to the string impressed and occurs in the direction in which the power is impressed.So far we have intercourseed about speed and velocity and performed some calculations. However, while speed and velocity are valuable components, they tend to provide us with drumhead information and very little about specific detail. For example, if we consider the data for a 200 meter race run in 20 seconds we know that average speed was 10 m/sec. However, we would not know any information about who accelerated the fastest or who was track after 100 meters. This information is also important as it helps with identifying speciality and weaknesses in athletes and in developing training programs for particular athletes. The measurement of acceleration is important. Acceleration is the rate of change in velocity. Therefore, when acceleration is zero, velocity is changeless. So when an object changes speed either by slowing up or down, or changes direction, it is accelerating (or decelerating). We can calculate acceleration by measuring the difference in velocity over the time it took for that change in velocity to occur. Consider this If you were to watch a 100M race the person leading at the 50M mark doesnt always win the race. The reason for this is that runners have different acceleration and deceleration rates, in other words their speed changes. Athletes vary dramatically in their acceleration. Some athletes are very fast over 40M but not over 100M and vice versa. SoAcceleration (a) = Velocity2 Velocity1 Where V2 is velocity at T2Tim Where V1 is velocity at T1Some measure you will see this presented as the change in velocity (Delta sign ) or the change in time (T)A = VTLook at the following acceleration example.Question A spr inter leaves the starting block at 2.5 m/s. wizard second later they are traveling at 5.5 m/s. What is the acceleration rate?Answer V2 V1 = 5.5 m/s 2.5 m/s = 3 m/s squaredT 1You will cable that we end up with meters per second squared as our answer would really be presented as 3 m/s/s.Heres another problem to try.Question A punt returner catches the addict standing still and begins to return. two seconds later his velocity was 5 m/s. What was his average acceleration over the first two seconds?Answer V2 V1 = 5 m/s 0 m/s = 3.5 m/s squaredT 2So far we have looked at relatively straightforward examples of speed, acceleration and velocity in that they have all been examples of horizontal movement. Now let us dishs the vertical components of projectile acceleration, speed and velocity.Factors Affecting AccelerationLinear acceleration is affected by many factors and you will generate from chapter ? that the messiness of an object is a very important one. Heavier objects acceler ate more slowly with a given force. This has to do with both inertia and mass. Heavier objects are harder to both accelerate and decelerate. Think about how easy it is to throw a basket lout versus a medicine thud. There are some other points to consider when looking at acceleration, speed, and velocity. First, we now know the units for velocity are meters per second (m/s) and meters per second squared for acceleration (m/s/s). For speed they are also m/s. Since acceleration (like velocity) is a vector quantity, it also has direction associated with it. The direction of acceleration depends on two factorsa. Whether the object is speeding up or slowing downb. Whether the object is moving in a negative (upwards) or positive (downward) directionWe can simplify this by saying that if an object is slowing down then its acceleration is in opposite direction of its motion. If it is speeding up then its acceleration is in the same direction as its motion.ThereforeAcceleration (m/s2) = mas s (kg)/force (newtons)Vertical speed, acceleration and velocityIf you were to throw a ball up in the air and then catch it again at the same height as you introduced it, how would the ending velocity be? Would it be greater, less, or the same as the release speed? If you guessed the same you would be correct. You see, all objects, whether traveling vertically or horizontally, are subjected to the unremitting force of gravity (9.81 m/s2). This means that as soon as the ball left field your hands it started to negatively (de)accelerate at 9.81 m/s2 until it had no more velocity. Then, it started to positively re-accelerate over the same distance (and time) at a rate of 9.81 m/s2 until you caught it again.This is a very neat relationship as it allows us to make many calculations based on this constant acceleration force. Projectiles are subjected to both vertical and horizontal components in their motion. The horizontal components are affected by the mass of the object and the accele ration force as previously mentioned. The vertical components are also affected by these two factors plus gravity. Consider this statement A ball shot horizontally (at zero degrees) has the same vertical component as a ball that is simply castped with no horizontal velocity. What this means is that if you were to throw a pass from your chest and it spud the aim 15 meters away 1.5 seconds later, and at the same time drop a second ball straight down from the same height, they would both hit the background signal at the exact same time. What this is showing us is that the force of gravity component is acting consistently regardless of whether the ball has a horizontal component or not. In other words adding a horizontal acceleration component does not affect in any way the force of gravity.Remember also that gravitational acceleration is a vector quantity comprising both magnitude and direction and acceleration is a squared variable to the magnitude of the force of gravity. This me ans that for every second an object is in free fall it will accelerate by ad additional 9.81m/s2. Thus the total distance traveled is directly proportional to the square of the time. Or we could say that if an object travels twice the time it will travel four times the distance. If an object travels for three seconds it will cover nine times the distance, for four seconds it is sixteen times the distance travelled in the first second. Look at the following.A coin is dropped from a cliff. The table shows how fast it is travelling at different time points.TimeSpeed m/s1 sec9.812sec19.623 sec29.434 sec39.245 sec49.056 sec58.867 sec96.23Consider this simple math problemQuestion A boy drops a ball from a balcony and records a time of 3 seconds for the ball to hit the ground. At what velocity did the ball hit the ground?Answer 29.43 m/sHow do we get this answer? Well, remember that gravity acts as a constant 9.81 m/s2. What this means is that for each second the ball is in career it acc elerates an additional 9.81 m/s. SoInsert schematic to demonstrateafter 1 second = 9.81 m/safter 2 seconds = 9.81 m/s + 9.81 m/s = 19.62 m/safter 3 seconds + 19.62 m/s + 9.81 m/s = 29.43 m/sThis is a simple illustration of the concept. Next oral sex, what velocity would the ball have to be released at ground height for the boy to catch it on the balcony?Answer A minimum of 29.43 m/s. The answer is the same because gravity and acceleration (or deceleration) is working(a) to the same effect when the ball is moving upwards. This is sometimes referred to a negative acceleration.Question.A boy is standing on a balcony and is curious about how high the balcony is from the ground. The boy drops a ball and records the time it takes to hit the ground. It took 3.2 seconds for the ball to hit the ground. The boy concludes that the balcony is 66.7m high.How did he work it out?Well at the end of the first second the ball was travelling 9.81m/s, at the end of the second the ball was travelling 19.62m/s, at the end of the third second the ball was travelling 29.43m/s. If you add these three distances together you get 58.86 meters travelled after three seconds. If the ball travelled another full second it would travel another 39.24m, but it only travelled in this order for 0.2 sec. So, 39.24m x 0.2sec =7.84m. Now we add the 58.86m + 7.84m = 66.7m, and thats our answer.There are some other factors to consider with vertical projectiles. The pattern of change in vertical velocity is symmetrical about the apex of the trajectory. So not only does the object land at the same speed it was released, it also follows the reverse flight path on the way down.Using these constant parameters we can now extend our calculations into more complex situations. For example, lets say you are watching a volleyball game in a high school gym with a 10 meter high ceiling. An opponent spikes the ball over the net and a player digs the ball at ground level at which time the ball has a velocity of 15 m/s. The question is will the ball hit the ceiling? To crystalise for this we can use an equation that combines several(prenominal) variables we talked about already.Where V2 = velocity at time 2V1 = velocity at time 1a = accelerationt = timeIn order to answer this question we need to look at what we know and what we want to know. Well, we want to know the distance (d) the ball travels. We already know a = 9.81 m/s2 and we know V1 = 15 m/s. We also know that at the apex the velocity is zero, so V2 can be set to zero. So now our normal looks like this1. 0 = V1 squared + 2ad2. 0 = (15 m/s) squared + 2 (-9.81 m/s squared) x dNow if we rearrange to solve for d our formula looks like= (19.62 m/s squared) x d = 225 m/s squared= d = 11.47 mThe answer is yes The ball will hit the ceiling as it will travel 11.47 m.Heres another similar problemA ball is deflected vertically at 18 m/s and the ceiling height is 11 meters. Will the ball hit the ceiling?Factors affecting projectile motionWe ha ve discussed several factors that affect the movement (or acceleration) of an object. The factors that affect vertical acceleration are the mass of the object, the force (speed) of release and gravity. Horizontal acceleration is affected only by mass and force of release (application). Gravity is of course a factor but not in determining its horizontal component. But sometimes we want to throw objects e.g. discus, hammer, etc. and while these projectiles are influenced by force and mass, there are other factors that influence how far the projectile will travel. We generally recognize three other factors that influence how far a projectile will travel when a constant force is use. They are1. Angle at which projectile is released.2. The speed of release.3. The height of release.The optimum tippytoe of release to increase horizontal displacement is 45. Projectiles released at over or below this cant will not reach their great distance. Look at control panel 1 to see how distance tr aveled varies with changing angles of release. You will see from table 1 that the optimum angle of release is 45 and after that the decrease in distance traveled is symmetrical as height compromises distance (I.e. follows the same pattern as increasing angle of release up to 45). The greater the speed of release the greater the distance a projectile will travel. This holds true simply because there is a greater acceleration force applied in the first place. Simply put, if you want to throw a ball further you need also to throw it harder. The greater the height of release the greater the distance a projectile will travel. If you consider field sports in athletics you will notice that most successful hammer, discus and javelin throwers are taller, giving the mechanical advantage over shorter competitors in that event. If you were to throw a ball from the top of a building it would strike the ground much further away than it would if you were to throw it from standing on the ground.Tab le 1 Distance a Projectile travels at a constant speed and height of release with change in angle of release. (need the reference)Speed of releaseRelease angleDistance Travelled10m/s103.49m10m/s206.55m10m/s308.83m10m/s4010.04m10m/s4510.19m10m/s501.04mIf you have watched a discuss contender or a hammer throw you might notice that these athletes are quite tall (often over 1.9m). The reason for this is that these athletes have an advantage over their shorter counterparts as their angle of release is already several centimeters higher.SummaryThis chapter has provided a basic introduction to the concepts of speed, acceleration and velocity. We have also looked at how differentiating between these variables is important and sometimes difficult. Using some known constants, such as the accelerating force of gravity (9.81 m/s2) allows us to calculate and even indicate the speeds, velocities and flight paths of selected projectiles. We have also discussed other factors that affect projectil e motion such as height and speed of release. While this information is very important, it is a basic introduction as there are many other more complex factors affecting speed, acceleration and velocity. We did not talk about shape or design or, indeed materials which also play a role in the way particular objects react to forces. The factors are extremely important but for now are beyond the cranial orbit of this text. Following this section are additional problems for you to solve and practice.Review ProblemsCan you provide a one sentence definition for each of the follow terms?DistanceDisplacementAccelerationVelocitySpeedPositionScalarVectorA ball rolls with an acceleration of -.5 m/s 2. If it stops after 7 seconds, what was its initial speed?A wheelchair long-distance runner has a speed of 5m/s after rolling down a small hill in 1.5sec. If the wheelchair underwent a constant acceleration of 3 m/s 2 during the descent, what was the marathoners speed at the top of the hill?A run ner completes 6.5 laps of a 400m track in 12 mins (720 secs). He starts half way around the bend. Can you calculate the following?a. Distance coveredb. Displacement after 12 minutesc. Runners average speedd. Runners average pace min/mile =A soccer ball is rolling across a field. At T = 0, the ball has an instantaneous velocity of 4 m/s. If acceleration occurs at a constant -0.3 m/s2 how long will it take to stop?A spank strikes a ground ball with an instantaneous velocity of 18m/s. If acceleration occurs at -0.7m/s2 how long will it take to stop?

Forces in Skeletal Structure of the Arm

Forces in Skeletal Structure of the girdBio Mechanics and KineticsTask 1. Produce a labelled diagram showing the long suits involved on the skeletal structure of a world fortify as a tilt is being held at a particular incline. Your report should use the principle of moments to fully describe altogether of the repels that are being apply at various points along the gird by means of the muscle and tendons. (appraisal criteria 1.1, 1.2, 1.3) Skeletal muscles consist of m whatsoever parallel fibres clothed in a flexible sheath along a bead, restricting at both ends into tendons. Some of the muscles thin into devil or 3 tendons which are k directlyn as biceps and triceps. Muscle fibres contract after receiving an electric signal from the nerve ending attached to them hence the muscles shorten and a pulling mash is sensed by the cardinal bones. Primarily, the main last of the muscles is to pull and not to push.As part of this task, I am press release to demonstrate the crowds involved on the skeletal structure of the human ramification when a exercising weight is being held at a particular go. The estimate under shows a free- ashes diagram illustrating the forces exerted on the build up bar. According to the Laws of Statics such as Newtons Law, the net force on the unmovable bar must be postcode, and the chalk up torque (which forget be discussed later) is in any case zero.Figure 1Hence the forces acting on the fore girdle are its weight (W), the weight of the hand (H), force from the bicep muscle (B, which pulls upwardly the forearm at an angle ) and the force from the humerus bone (A).The muscular clay within the arm generates linear force. Linear force refers to the force that acts in straight line between the origin and the insertion. However the linear force is manifested by the rotational moment which is generated at the joint centre. This is due to the geometric relationship between the lines of action of the muscles and th e joint centre.The supreme force a muscle is able to exert is equivalent to its cross-sectional area, i.e. the legs are sufficient of lifting heavier load due to having greater cross-sectional area compared to the arms. thereof the estimated supreme force a muscle behind apply is virtually 7106 dyn/cm2 = 7 x 105 Pa = 102lb/in2. The formula to calculate the moment of force isFor example, if an arm (weighing 7kg) lifts a load of 5kg by 1cm, what is the moment of force applied on the arm?Firstly I allow for pack to fix the force of both inclinations, by using this formulaWhere accele ration is 9.8m/s (Earths gravitational field, since it is constant). The force of the object = 5kg X 9.8m/s = 49NThe force of the arm = 7kg X 9.8m/s = 68.6N in that respectfore the moment of a force =49N X 0.01m = 0.49NmThe moment of force of 0.49Nm is applied on the arm.The various joints in the body are k directn as levers which practices rotations about a fulcrum (axis rotation). This is app ly to disc over out the forces exerted by the muscles such as lifting loads and transfer relocation from one point to another. For a lever, the force F required to touch onizer a load of weight (W) isWhere d1 and d2 are the lengths of the lever arms (illustrated in figure 2)If d1 is 5cm and d2 is 35cm, find out the force required to sense of balance the weight of 5kg. Using the above formulaTherefore, a force of 0.71Nm is required to balance the weight of 5kg on the arm.If the load is close to the fulcrum, the mechanistic advantage is greater (d12) hence if it is uttermost away thence it is smaller (d2 d1). Therefore the mechanical advantage may increase or decrease depending on the distances from the fulcrum.We apprize likewise measure torque (any point of the fulcrum), which refers to the force applied over a distance (lever arm) that causes rotations of the fulcrum. The torque is dependent on three variables standard of force, angle of application of force and the leng th of the moment arm/ R. As mentioned above in figure 1, the total torque is equal to zero. The following formula is used to calculate Torque Where F is the force (0.71Nm),R is the distance from the location force is applied to the joint (moment arm) (35cm) is the angle between the force and the radial lineI will now find out the torque for the same question, if the angle is 20This connect in with the above statement of the total torque being equal to zero.I am now going to discuss about the cubital joint and the forces applied to it. There are many properties which jakes be used to calculate the forces of the biceps the angle of the elbow the length of the upper and lower arm bone and the distance from the bone to the location the muscle is attached to.I will now use this formula to find out the force exerted by the biceps (equilibrium) in holding the object, which is the sum of the clockwise moments about any points, equals the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same po intTaking 5cm from bone to the biceps attachment The force exerted by the biceps holding the object is 891.8N.Similarly, we substructure also measure the tension of the bicep/arm holding the object. The run into below shows an arm being held out and elevated from the shoulder by the deltoid muscle. The forces suffer be measured the taking the sum of the torques (of the shoulder joint, the tension (T) dissolve be calculated Where W1 is the weight of the arm,W 2 is the weight of the objectUsing the above question if = 20 the weight of the arm (W1) is 68.6N and the weight of the object (W2) is 49N, then calculate T= 113.96NTherefore the force necessitate to hold up the bicep/arm at 20, is 113.96N.Task 2. A) You must breeze by means of the strength changes/momentum worksheet. Assessment criteria 2.3,2.4See attachmentsb) You must produce a report that describes the equations of motion needed to calculate the betray and supreme apex that a rocket engine thrown by a human can compass. This report must include examples of both the range equation and supreme height equation. You could use a sports person throwing a eggs as an example.A projectile is any object that has been thrown or opaline by a human (measures projectile motion). Projectiles are affected by two factors dryness (Horizontal motion) and air resistance (vertical motion which is the force of gravity pulling down the object). As part of this task I am going to carry out various unhurriednesss to find out the range and maximum height that a golf lout can achieve when a golf player hits the clod.A golfer hits a ball so that it moves off with a speed of 37m/s at an angle of 45. I am going to calculate how far the ball goes the maximum height it will reach and how long it takes for the ball to get there.Firstly, I am going to use the following formula to calculate how far the ball travelsWhere R is the range/resultant (how far the ball goes),V0 is the sign speed of the ball speed (37m/s) g is the gravity (9.8m/s) also can be used as (a) since it is constant is angle of the ball (45)ThereforeHence, when a ball is hit with a speed of 37m/s at 45, the ball will go far as 139.7m.Secondly, I will calculate the maximum projectile height (how high a ball will go) by using the following methodWhere Ymax is the maximum projectile height that the ball will goThe maximum projectile height that a ball will reach is 34.9m.The final calculation that I am going to carry out is the flight beat so that I can find out how long it takes for the ball to get there. I will use the following methodWhere Tflight is the date flight of how long it takes for the ball to reach there.The flight metre for the ball to get there is 5.3s.Using the same question, I now pauperization to find out how far the ball travels horizontally from A to C and the time that the ball is in the air, ignoring any air resistance and taking g = 10ms-2.Firstly, I will calculate the time that the ball is in the air for, by using the following formulaI need to find out the vertical motion from A to B first gear = 90 45 = 45Formula Where v is the final hurrying (0 since it is moving horizontally),u is the initial velocity (37m/s x romaine 45) is 26.16m/sa is the acceleration (10m/s)t is the timeTherefore , so the time it takes from A to C is twice this I will now look at the horizontal motion from A to C.Horizontal luck of velocity. This is constant during motion.Horizontal distance = horizontal velocity X time of flightTherefore the horizontal distance the ball travels from A to C is 136.8m.Task 3. You must produce a report showing how the mutant of birth insistence affects the human body. Your report must include calculations to circumscribe squelch based on area or density hold dears. Assessment criteria 3.1,3.2Bernoullis rationales explains that plying breed has different speeds and therefore different energising energies (KE) at different parts of the arteries. It determines the relationships between the pressure, density and velocity at every point in a fluid. Bernoullis Principle was discover by a Swiss physicist called Daniel Bernoulli in 1738. He has demonstrated that as the velocity of fluid fall increases, its pressure decreases.Flowing argumentation has masses and velocity. The mean velocity squared (V2) is equal to the kinetic ability. The image below demonstrates the variance of kinetic energy at different parts of the vessels and also shows the theory of Bernoullis PrincipleTherefore KE = mV2. As we know from above that blood flows inside arteries, were pressure is applied laterally against the walls of the vessel which is cognize as the potential or pressure energy (PE). The total energy (E) of the blood pressure within the artery is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies (presuming there are no gravitational effects)E = KE + PE(where KE V2) Therefore,E V2 + PESimilarly, Bernoullis Principle states that the sum of the Press ure (P), the kinetic energy per unit volume (1/2 pv2), and the gravitational potential energy per unit volume (pgy) has the same value at all points along a streamline. The equation below shows thisThere are two vital theories that follow from this relationship, which includesBlood flow determined by the variation in total energy between two points. Normally, pressure is considered as the driving force for blood flow unless in fact it is the total energy that moves flow between two areas (i.e. longitudinally along a blood vessel or crossways a tenderness valve). KE is relatively low in most of the cardiovascular system hence PE difference is the energy that drives flow. Similarly, is KE is high then the total energy increases which explains the flow across the aortic valve during cardiac ejection. This is because, as KE drives blood across the valve at a very high velocity, it ensures that the total energy (E) in the blood crossing the valve is higher than the total energy of th e blood more distal in the aorta.KE and PE can be converted to watch over the total energy unchanged, which is the basis of Bernoullis Principle. This principle is basically about the blood vessel that is suddenly narrowed then returned to its practice diameter. The velocity increases as the diameter decreases in narrowed region (stenosis). Blood flow (F) is the mean velocity (V) and the vessel cross-sectional area (A) is directly relate to diameter (D) (or radius, r2) hence V 1/D2. If the diameter is reduced by half in the region of the stenosis, the velocity increases 4-fold, due to KE V2, hence KE increases 16-fold. The image below demonstrates thisThe image above shows the total energy being hold within the stenosis (E actually decreases because of resistance), then the 16-fold increase in KE will decrease in PE. Once past the narrowed segment, KE will go back to its pre-stenosis value as the post-stenosis diameter is the equal to the pre-stenosis diameter, hence flow is c onserved. Due to the resistance of the stenosis and turbulence, the port stenosis PE and E will both fall. Therefore, blood flowing at greater velocities has greater ratio of KE to PE.As we know, blood pressure is the force of fluid against the walls of the arteries, similar to how piddle exerts the pressure inside aplastic pipe. It is made up of systolic and diastolic pressure. systolic pressure is the top figure and relates to when the shopping center is contracting (beating) and forcing blood through the arteries and transporting it to the rest of the body i.e. brain, kidneys etc. The normal values for systolic pressure is from 120-139mmHg. Diastolic pressure is the bottom figure and is linked to when the heart is relaxing. The normal value for diastolic pressure is between 80-89mmHg. Hence, if the values exceed these numbers, then it is considered to be hypertension.Hypertension is high blood pressure which is caused by the increase force of blood flowing through the arteries. Healthy arteries are flexible, warm and elastic. Inner lining of the arteries are smooth allowing the blood to flow freely, planning important organs and tissues with adequate nutrients andoxygen. Hypertension can gradually widen to wide range of problems such as damaging the cells inner lining of the arteries hence releasing a cascade of events that causes the artery wallsthick and stiff (called arteriosclerosis), or hardening of the arteries. Similarly, the fats from the diet enter the bloodstream and passes through the damaged cells. However, plaques are prone to building up in the arteries confidential information to atherosclerosis. These changes result to blocking blood flow to the heart, kidneys, brain, arms and leg.Heart it causes coronary artery disease, which is narrowing of the arteries that doesnt allow blood to flow freely through the arteries. Leading to chest pain, heart attack (myocardial infarction)or irregular heart rhythms (arrhythmias). Hypertension can als o cause enlarged left heart as the pressure forces the heart to work harder than necessary. Similarly, overtime the strain on the heart authorizes to the heart muscles to weaken and work less effectively create the heart to wear out and fail.Brain hypertension can cause mini-strokes (Transient ischemic attack (TIA)), which a temporary disruption of blood grant to the brain caused by blood clot or atherosclerosis. Similarly, it can lead to the full-blown stroke which happens when part of the brain is deprived of oxygen and nutrients spark advance brain cells to die. Uncontrolled hypertension damages and weakens the brains blood vessels, causing to narrow, breach or leak. Narrowing and blockage of the brains blood vessels can also lead to Dementia and mild cognitive impairment.Kidneys filters excess fluid and waste from the blood via a process that depends on healthy blood vessels. Hypertension can damage both the blood vessels and leading to the kidneys. This leads to various kidney diseases, failure and scarring of the kidney. look- Blood vessels supplies blood to the eyes hence high blood pressure can damage the blood vessel (retinopathy)Reference http//www.bhf.org.uk/heart-health/conditions/high-blood-pressure/blood-pressure-research.aspx twenty-second October 2013http//www.bhf.org.uk/heart-health/conditions/high-blood-pressure.aspx 22nd October 2013http//www.webmd.boots.com/hypertension-high-blood-pressure/guide/diastolic-systolic 24th October 2013http//edition.cnn.com/HEALTH/library/high-blood-pressure/HI00062.html 24th October 2013http//amazinghumanbody-prakash.blogspot.co.uk/2009/10/skeletal-system.html twenty-fifth October 2013http//www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/factfiles/armandshoulder/arm_and_hand.shtml 26th October 2013http//www.cvphysiology.com/Hemodynamics/H012.htm 26th October 2013http//www.bu.edu/gk12/kai/Lesson%206/BP_Back.pdf 27th October 2013http//mysite.verizon.net/fvozzo/genphys/lecture.html 27th October 2013http//muscle.ucsd.e du/musintro/ma.shtml twenty-ninth October 2013http//www.as.wvu.edu/rbrundage/chapter8b/sld015.htm 29th October 2013http//www.answers.com/topic/projectile-motion 30th October 2013http//www.wired.com/wiredscience/2011/10/optimizing-a-basketball-shot/ 1st November 2013http//demoweb.physics.ucla.edu/node/28 25th November 2013http//www.medicalphysics.org/apps/medicalphysicsedit/WebPOTB.pdf 25th November 2013http//physics.eou.edu/opensource/physics/projectile.pdf 27th November 2013http//www.google.co.uk/url?sa=trct=jq=esrc=ssource=webcd=14ved=0CG8QFjANurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wooster.edu%2F%2Fmedia%2Ffiles%2Facademics%2Fresearch%2Fhhmi%2Fresources%2Flectures%2Fhuman-arm-goniometer.ashxei=bnakUuzDC6yg7AbX5oGYCQusg=AFQjCNFMTH1EmPzRvKvptZu4R7_XUpFKPwbvm=bv.57752919,d.ZGU 28TH November 2013 hellgrammiate et al. (2002). Collin advanced aperients. Collins eduction LondonRounce, J.F and Lowe, T.L. (1992). Calculations for A level Physic. Second edition. Stanley Thornes BritainBoutal et al. (2008 ). AS-Level physics exam board. Coordination group publications CGP NewcastleTsokos, KA. (2008). Physics for the IB sheepskin. Fifth edition. Cambridge university press united kingdomJohnson et al. (2000). Advanced physics for you. Nelson Thornes united kingdom

Saturday, March 30, 2019

Medical Brain Drain in Developing Countries

wellspringness check checkup examination pass beetle off in create CountriesCHAPTER ONE reachThe exhalation of military man hood from ontogenesis countries to demonstrable countries is non a new phenomenon. It is commsolely refer to as learning ability expire which in the main even ups the migproportionn of exceedingly masterly master copys from wiz terra firma or part of a agri ethnic to an unalikewise in search of a better cyclorama (Sako, 2002). The freeing of highly apt victor attributed to headspring run out has been of recreate transnation each(prenominal)y for everywhere four some decades (Giannoccolo, 2004). Concern everywhere the global migration of wellness proles initial came to limelight at the Edinburgh Commonwealth Medical Conference in 1965. This situation prompted the World wellness organisation (WHO) in 1970 to examine the world(prenominal) process and f first-class honours degree gears of doctors and nurses (Meji a, 1978). The stem heretofore do teeny reachs on migration of wellness acidulateers which has continually been on the join on over the old sequence (Levy, 2003, Pang et al. 2002)The invention of the aesculapian ace beetle off, that is the migration of doctors and some otherwise wellness master copys from ontogenesis economies to true countries has been the exit of interest and query across a strain of fields including crowd economicals, military man re get-goation studies and human geography (Diallo, 2004, Buchan, 2004 and Stilwell et al., 2004)The migration of wellness check personnel has been identify by WHO as the some critical task facing the de effry of wellness service in evolution countries (WHO, 2007), whateverway the deportation of doctors in particular to other countries impart received a much(prenominal) wide attention (Beecham, 2002)The extent to which wellness professional persons transmig post to essential countries has continue t o be on the ontogeny in recent long clipping and this has been attributed to an app arnt reaction to train from the unquestionable countries where medical examination professional argon in lilliputian run to run for demands due to demographic changes, develop population, growing income, feminisation of custody amongst others (Pond and McPake, 2006).Foreign- clever medical and nursing run forforces be estimated to direct for more than(prenominal) than a quarter of health professionals of the Australia, Canada, the US, and the UK (OECD, 2002).The quest for highly accomplishmented professionals has been on the increase in many real countries. According to statistic report from the Global atlas vertebra of Workforce cited in Pond and McPake, (2006), the linked kingdom (UK) was ranked among the least(prenominal) staffed of high income countries with 166 doctors and 497 nurses per 100,000 populations the second lowest doctors closeness and the quarter nurses lo west density among the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries. Moreover, as at the year 2000, the UK health scheme currently require almost 10,000 physicians and 20,000 more nurses to meet the demand of the NHS plan (Department of health, 2000). Between the year 1999 and 2004 when the coffin nails was carry outd earlier than expected, a new target was set to increase the arrive of nurses by 35000 (10%) and physicians by 15000 (25%) betwixt 2001 and 2008. In order to carry out the new target, several methods were espo put on to recruit doctors and nurses from other agricultural to fill the famine inside the NHS. However, the burn up created a kick in the international enlisting of health prole (Department of health, 2004).Conversely, the slimy frugality hold a masstha in the ontogeny countries coupled with deplorable remunerations, pretermit of infrastructural facilities, and low morale, emigrating to developed countries by docto rs is seen as an opportunity for a better prospect. what is more, the perpetual turn out in illness prevalence, exile, productivity losses, and deficit of doctors in submarine-Saharan Africa, has resulted in health resource crisis (Aluwih atomic lean 18, 2005). Insufficiency in human qualification for health anxiety livery in develop countries occupy been place as a momentous incidentor that is answerable for the inability to achieve the target set by WHO for the manipulation of 3 million human immunodeficiency virus infected raft by year 2005. (This chess opening was tagged 3by5) (WHO, 2005). This has correspondingly been identify as a ruminate modesty limiting the promotion of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Initiatives (IOM, 2005).In response to the migration of health professionals to developed countries and the countervail takings to the economy, well-dis gear upd and health posture of exportation countries, the Commonwealth Ministers of wellnes s agreed to uphold and keep the Commonwealth value of cooperation, sharing and musical accompaniment wholeness another(prenominal), thus a consensus lift to voltaic pile with the problem of international recruitment of health buy the farmers was adopted.The Code of Practice for the distant Recruitment of health Workers is intended to get out a framework to governments inwardly which international recruitment should be carried out (Commonwealth Code of Practise, 2003).Similarly, Department of health (2004), presented a revise policy on trampon of execute for international recruitment of health sell professionals this demonst come ind the concerned of the UK government in protecting the health interest organisation of ontogenesis countries. The revised code of practise for recruitment addresses role of private employer and agencies in the international recruitment of health professionals from growth countries (Eastwood et al., 2005).Nevertheless, developing countri es get under ones skin make some fret in forecloseing the emigration of physician to developed countries. In spite of this, addressing detailors that get-up-and-go emigration, much(prenominal)(prenominal) as large dissimilitude in remunerations, standards of living, opportunities for tendinger developing amongst host other benefits atomic number 18 normally grueling to come by. At the 1998 UN Conference on Trade and Development, WHO translate indicated that 56% of doctors from developing countries move to developed nations, tour merely 11% emigrate in the obscure eye direction the derangement is even great for nurses. (Chanda, 2002).As a result, advance effort is world deployed by developing countries to search for means to bear off the migration of the health workforce to developed countries (Hussey, 2007).Despite measures, it whitethorn be problematic to positively prevent health professionals from migrating. As the large scale of medical maven spill f rom developing countries is now having a negative impact on the development process of the health system of those countries, it is further assertive for stakeholders to develop a consequential means to flash back the continual movements of health professionals.Nigeria wellness workHistorical BackgroundNigeria, the approximately populous black nation in the put togetheration with a total population of one hundred forty million people (2006 census). As a orbit with mono-cultural economy, the major source of overseas wages is from crude oil. The poor people take aim of resources allocated to the health wish sphere is one of the definitive factors responsible for the deplorable health condition in the boorish (Campbell, 2007).The normal health service in Nigeria started in 1946 with a 10-year colonial administration plan the development came about when treatment was ask for soldiers of the double-u Afri burn down Frontier Force and the colonial administration staff. In 1975 onslaught was do to adopt primary health treat under the elemental wellness Service Scheme (BHSS). The BHSS aimed to improve the handiness to heath c be in terms location, affordability, increase access to disease prevention and dissemination of services, and provision of adaptable health services ground on topical anesthetic need and companionablely acceptable method of engineering science (Hodges 2001).The Current Health C ar System in NigeriaOver the stick out two decades, the health care system in Nigerias has deteriorated a fact ascribed to the commonwealths poor authorities and leadership which was more pronounced during the military era. This was reflected in budget allocations and the monetary requirements of the Structural Adjustment Programmes. The deficient of reliable in course of actionation makes it difficult to stick out a detailed assessment of the degree of financial commitment to the health domain (Ali-Akpjiak and Pyke, 2003).According t o World Bank source, Nigeria public spending per capita for the health sector is less than $5 USD and is as low as $2 USD in some parts of the estate. This is far beneath the $34 USD recommended by WHO for developing countries inwardly the Macroeconomics Commission Report. Nevertheless the national Government perennial budget on health showed an increasing shorten from 1996 to 1998, a origin in 1999 and started to rise again in 2000, procurable evidence shows that to the highest degree of the repeated expenditure is spent on personnel. The federal official Government recurrent expenditure on health as a share of the total Federal Government recurrent expenditure which sas welld at 2.55% in 1996, 2.96% in 1997, and 2.99% in 1998, declined to 1.95% in 1999 and 2.5% rose in 2000. beyond budgetary allocations, in that location is a wide gap in the usable between the budgetary figures and the actual amount of funds released from the treasury for health activities (WHO 2009a). The decline in the Nigeria health sector was accompanied by fracture of institutional capacities, poor remuneration and lack of conducive environment, dilapidated equipment and root word boast over the old age, job dissatisfaction and low motivation, gull led to increase migration of health professionals to desire date in afield countries. In a bid to curtail the impasse, Nigeria has subscribed to the Commonwealth Code of Practice for the internationalist Recruitment of Health Workers for which a framework of responsibilities is presently being developed (WHO 2009b).Demographic and Health IndicatorsThe demographic data in Nigeria are not very reliable. info gathered from various exercises such(prenominal) as census, bouncy registrations and surveys are oftentimes inconsistence and sometimes contradictory. Nonetheless, there is evidence that the attain indicators seduce either rebrinyed never-ending or worsened (WHO 2005).Life expectancy declined from 52.6 years for ma le and 58.8 years for female in 1991 to 45 years and 46 years for some(prenominal) Male and Female respectively in 2004. The baby mortality rate (IMR) in 2004 is 103 per 1000 live births when compared to 87.2 per 1000 live births in 1999. fifty dollar bill percent of deaths under 5 years of age have been attributed to malnutrition.The agnate mortality rate (MMR) of 800 per 100,000 births is the second highest in the world after India. This has been attributed partially to shortage of experient medical personnel. For instance only 41.9 % of primary health facilities is provides antenatal and delivery services. Moreover 57.3% of such health facilities operate without a doctor, midwives or senior community extension worker. The Nigeria health system is one of the worst in sub-Saharan African with a disability carriage adjusted expectancy of 38.3 years and ranked 187 in the world (WHO 2005)Health Workforce in NigeriaAmong the several challenges facing the health system in Nigeria i s the lack of competent health care professionals. This has been attributed to incapable infrastructures and poor remunerations packages, make a sizeable numbers of doctors, nurses and other medical professionals vulnerable to be lured away to developed countries in search of a fulfilling and lucrative employments (Stilwell and Awofeso, 2004, Raufu, A., 2002) on that point are 52, 408 Nigerian Doctors registered with the Nigeria Medical Council as at December 2007, in that location are 128,918 nurses and 90,489 midwives on the register, although only a particle of these pay the required practicing licensing fee. There are 13,199 pharmacists, 840 radiographers, 1,473 physiotherapists, 12,703 medical laboratory scientists, and 19,268 club Health Officers. altogether these health workers are required to pay yearly practicing licensing fees however the lists have not been pruned for those have migrated out to foreign countries, deaths, retirements or those that have remaining the profession for another career entirely.Health workers are poorly distributed and some are in favour of urban areas, southern, 3rd health care services delivery, and curative care. For some cadres of health workers such as doctors and nurses, more than 50% have their place of work in the southwest western part of the country with vast majority residing in the commercial city of Lagos (Labiran et. al, 2008).Medical ace Drain in NigeriaAmong the countries in sub-Saharan African, Nigeria is a major export of health professionals. An estimated number of 20, 000 health professionals emigrate from Africa each year. A trend that poses threat to sustainable health care delivery in Nigeria. Statistical data on Nigerian doctors who are legally migrating oversea are scarce and unreliable, this is largely due to the fact that most fuddled nations like Australia currently makes it very difficult for overseas adept doctors to practise in their country primarily on the stern of medical skills. However, hundreds of doctors trained in Nigeria continue to emigrate to developed countries annually (Stilwell and Awofeso, 2004). Better remunerations and medical facilities among other factors are cited as one of the major conclude for escape valve of Nigerian doctors (Raufu, 2002) and also there are throttle incentives and encouragement for overseas ground Nigerian doctors that is bequeathing to relocate back to the country (Stilwell et al., 2004). conclude of the studyIn sub-Saharan African, there is has been a of import rise in disease burden, loss of productivity and the emigration of medical doctors to developed counties have resulted in the in dearth of the most required health resource (Aluwihare, 2005). Most studies on medical wizard drain have examined the qualified from the perspective of recipient developed countries and footling attention has been give to the bestower developing countries. Thus, scarcity of data from developing country makes it diff icult to fully describe the impact of migration on countries of origin (Hagopian et al., 2004). Most studies on doctors migration from Sub-Saharan African have tended to focus on numbers, without exploring the underlying reason for migration, assessing the potential negative impact of migration on the health care systems, or considering means to alleviate the problem. In actual fact, discipline regarding the extent of migration is usually retrieveed through with(predicate) data from countries of destination (Stilwell et al 2003).The migration of medical doctors from Nigeria and other countries in sub-Saharan African captures three areas of major concern. The showtime is a loss of the underlying health services available to the citizen. for instance, gold coast, set about with a ratio of nine doctors to every 100 000 patients and no more than 22 pediatrist are licensed to practise in country and no more than 10 specialists of any kind practising in the opposed area. Similarly , Nigeria lack capable doctors to care for the sick peculiarly patients residing in the agricultural communitiesThe second incumbrance doctor migration from Nigeria is that it prevent the health sectors the ability to aim and expand. Public health institutions heavily depend on doctors to lead, develop and lift them as they work to advance health care delivery. As obtained in US, doctors are well positioned to serve their organisation by actively tortuous in managing resources and articulating priorities. It is accordingly speculated that as the numbers of available medical doctors in developing countries reduces.The third challenges are that doctors migration depletes a significant element of the halfway class in developing countries. As in the developed countries, medical doctors in African comprise of an consequential segment of the social and economic make up of the middle class. They are every mean solar dayly accorded a destiny of respect in the society, as being a bove corruption, they advocate for improvement in character reference of education of public schools and they play a racy role in semipolitical (Hagopian et al., 2005). In Nigeria, over 70.2% of the population lives on $1 per day (WHO, 2006)Research aim and objectivesThe aim of this study is to disassemble the causes of medical creative thinker drain from developing countries, benefits and burdens associated with heading drain ground largely on the views of Nigerian doctors practising in UK.The objectives areTo identify the factors that entice the close of medical doctors to migrate to developed countries migrationTo identify the impacts of migration on healthcare in developing countriesCHAPTER TWOLITERATURE REVIEWConcept of Brian Drain brilliance drain has been defined by many analysts in antithetical ways. It is not strike the social phenomenon has been examined and analysed from several(predicate) perspective, ground on their general orientation and or awareness of the subject.Brain drain will be conceived in this study as the loss of medical professionals or significant number of human capital within the health care system to other sector of the economy or country.Migration of virtuoso(prenominal) professionals differs from one country to another and from time to time it is however misleading to generalise the affirmable impacts of migration in developing countries. Moreover, it can be argued that various studies have try to measure the phenomenon from different perspective. Single analytic measurement cannot be employ to unblock all migration although migration of highly skilled professionals from developing countries has been attributed to various factors which political, social and economical factors measure for a significant reasons behind the phenomenon (AUN report, 2002).The migration of highly skilled workers can justify the use of the term wizardry drain however the expression should be apply cautiously. Replacing drain by a more coarse and value expression such as migration whitethorn generate shift meaning. The difference in the word may be heightened by saying composition all creative thinker drains constitute brain migration notwithstanding, brain migration may not necessarily refer to brain drain.Brain drain bring up the de-facto transfer of resources spent on impacting education and developing both technological and professional skills of the drained brain in promontory by the boot (donor) country to the (recipient) country of transfer. The developed countries thus hand over financial resources on education and professional training and invariably obtain the service of professionals such as doctors, nurses, engineers, scientists who earn more than their colleague in developing countries with a better comfortable living environment (Glaser and Habers, 1978).several(prenominal) efforts have been made to define the concept of brain drain, most especially by international organisation. Accor ding to United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO report, 1969), the brain drain could be defined as an abnormal form of scientific transform between countries, characterized by a one- way endure in favour of the most highly developed countries. Approximately four decades later, the definition of brain drain has undergone no significant change with a lot of highly skilled workers still leaving the shores of developing countries in pursuit of greener pastures in the developed nations. Medical doctors, engineers and scientists usually tend to brood or trace for a larger proportion among the migrants. Their higher the direct of skills or professional qualification, make them more liable(predicate) to migration.Gillis, et al. (1987) suggested two main reasons why brain drain is detestable to most developing countries. The first is that the calibres of people that migrate represent one of the scarce human resources in these developing countries and se cond the amount of resources, financial exist and time bear on in educating these pigeonholing of people is expensive and heavily subsidise by the government. Such migration to foreign country therefore becomes expensive and costly to the donor countries. In most cases the developing countries completely loose these highly skill professionals to the developed countries (Edokat, 2000). This phenomenon has generated a lot of arguments that have been advanced for or against brain drain however this is not a concern for this study. All that can be reason out is that migration of highly skilled workers from developing countries to develop countries creates a vacuum in the former countries (Edokat, 2000).Types of brain drainPrimary outside(a) brain drain occurs when trained professional or skilled human resources emigrate from their country of origin to work in developed countries such as America, europium and Australia.Secondary external brain drain occurs when a trained professi onal or skilled human resources leave their country or any other less developed country to work in a another developing country such as Botswana, southwestward Africa, Zimbabwe and Namibia.inner brain drain occurs when a trained professional or skilled or skilled human resources seek for employment in a field not related to his to his/her expertise or when such case-by-case migrate from the public sector to private sector or to another sector within a particular country. opus this may pose a problem for a country, it is however not a loss of human resource to the country or the continent.Brain Drain TheoriesThese theories are based on general migration plan of attackes. In brain drain discussion, these advancees have been referred to briefly or summarized. Occasionally specific re foretokens will be made to provide more clarity regarding the theories.It is however fundamental to state that nearly the divinatory outlook consists of specific mix of different theories or based on the nature of the dominating factors. On the other hand, the scientific approach in which the theories were founded. Another approach in the use of division based on the direct Micro, Meso or Macro. These groups cover greater number of theoretical approaches (Oderth, 2002).This level has been defined asMicro level the stopping point making of individual is affected by his or her motives, give-up the ghost and access to information.Meso level an aspect of social ties that affects migration such as the effect of network of friends and relatives on migrationMacro level opportunities and constraints available at societal level which implicate political, socio-cultural and economical factorsThere is no Grand guess linked with research on brain drain although attempts have been made to integrate the subject with economic and social theory, spatial analysis and social science (Kangasniemi et. al., 2004). The study of brain drain and other behaviour by demographers was able to draw insights from other disciplines such as statistics, history, economy, medicine and anthropology (Oderth 2001). A common shell is the clit and pull cast of labour mobility. The standard states that individual migration finding is a combination of family, economic, social and political factors. Categories of factors identified to be touching migration let in 1) Factors at the quest of origin, 2) Factors at point of destination, 3) Intervening obstacles and 4) in-personized circumstances. The push and pull model has been widely used by scholars in studies. Economic factors of employment and material benefits are regarded to have the strongest turn on migration decisiveness (Oderth 2002)Despite the frequent use of the push and pull model approach in migration literature, the approach has been seen as too mechanical and sharp-witted picking based and with less consideration for interact obstacles or institutional and structural constraints (Massey et al, 1993). Most migr ation tends to be unidirectional from poor to rich nations. The rate of emigration also differs vary considerately between countries and regions on similar economic level and the poorest or the less better people hardly ever move. A major challenge for the migration is lack of insights in the interconnectedness of all the processes (Kangasniemi et. al., 2004)Another model is the migration system approach it involves formation of a link that encourages migration between a sender and receivers which are strengthened over a period of time. Such links include economic, political and cultural interaction often based on diachronic activities. Once a link has been created between the migrant places subsequent migration is facilitated through the links.The migration system approach emphasis that social network of the migration provides the intending migrants with information and economic aid to ease migration. An important feature of such system is that immigration to a country is say to specific regions. Such migration is partly dependent on specific areas (Gillis, et al. (1987)).The chain of medical brain drainThe World Health Report (2006) estimated that an approximately 817,992 (138%) health workers would be required In Africa to achieve the coverage of basic health interventions.The rate at which doctors and other health professional migrate differs from country to country. Nevertheless, the pattern of migration shares certain similarities. The severe shortage of doctors particularly in rural health facilities has critical negative cause on accessibility and equitable distribution of health care in sub-Saharan African (Ovberedjo, 2007).Studying a specific group of employments from a pool of migration statistics revealed a substantial net loss of human capital among certain key profession in sub-Saharan African. An obvious and highly skilled professional to emerge from such analysis are medical doctors (SOPEMI, 2008). This particular phenomenon can be des cribed as Medical Brain Drain. However, to what extent doctors migrated from sub Saharan African to developed countries?This section will review the mountain range of migration among doctors in sub Saharan African. Medical brain drain is important and deserves consideration because it is obvious that any decrease in the labour supply among doctors in any country is bound to generate a significant negative impact on the health system of that particular country.In year 2000, statistical data revealed an average of 18.2% of use doctors working in OECD countries were foreigners. The United States has the largest number of doctors (about 200,000) innate(p) and trained in foreign countries followed by the United soil which key for almost 50,000 and France about 34,000. Health worker in India and Philippine formed a greater percentage of the immigrant health workforce OECD countries. In addition, doctors from India account for 56,000 of foreign born doctors practising in OECD countri es while nurses of Philippine origin account for about 110, 000. These represent about 15% each of the total (SOPEMI, 2008).The French and the Portuguese African speaking countries abide some of the highest emigration rate to OECD countries for medical doctors some of other African countries such as Guinea Bissau, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Carpe Verde, Congo, Benin and Togo rank between 17th and twenty-third places with emigration rate of 40%, while the slope speaking countries in African such as Malawi, Kenya and Ghana have lower emigration rate ranked 25th, 28th and 38th respectively. South African and Nigeria were the only two countries in sub-Saharan African among the twitch 25 countries with foreign doctors and nurses practising in the OECD countries. This was due to the fact that most African countries have smaller population of workforce (SOPEMI, 2007).Statistical data from the American Medical companionship (AMA) Physician Master file shows that 5, 334 non-federal trained doctors trained in Africa medical schools were licensed to practise medicine in the United States in 2002. Nigeria account for 2,158, while South Africa 1,943 doctors. Another 478 doctors are from Ghana medical schools. another(prenominal) countries contributing to the list in sub-Saharan African include Ethiopia 257 physician, Uganda 153 doctors, and Kenya 93 doctors. The total number of 5,334 represents 6% of the total number African doctors (Hagopian et al. 2004). afterward United States, the United Kingdom and Canada are the most common destinations in developed countries for African Physicians, with a total of 3,451 and 2, 151 African trained doctors are recorded to be practising in United Kingdom and Canada respectively. Moreover figures in the UK include only doctors who arrived after 1992 thus the number may likely be higher, other destinations for African-trained doctors include Australia, New Zealand and the gulf States (Hagopian et al. 2003)Migration of doc tors also occurs between countries within African continent. For instance, countries such as South Africa, Senegal and Botswana export doctors to developed countries and likewise import doctors from other African countries to cater for shortfall in medical personnel (EQUINET, 2003).Causes of Brain DrainThe factors head individual choice of migration is in essence personal and thus susceptible to the prevailing personal circumstances. Nonetheless, the economic and social context of such decision deserves an important consideration. Moreover, the disparity between the economic and social development status of different sectors within a particular country and of different countries within African has countries has extend over the year (Stilwell, 2004).Brain drain of doctors and other highly skilled professional from Africa has been blame on unfulfilled moon at country of origin caused by strife, corruption and misuse that mark Africas post-colonial history (Bridgewater, 2003 cited i n Mbanefoh, 2007). Also according to Dovlo (2003), causes can be linked using six gradients which include job satisfaction, salary, career opportunity, governance, social auspices and benefit, protection and risk. Furthermore the dualistic nature of the world economy has been found to be a major contributing factor to brain drain, as highly skilled medical professionals particularly doctors try to escape the autochthonal poverty by migrating to wealthy, developed and technologically advanced countries of the world (Mbanefoh, 2007).Factors channelise individual decision to emigrate are a result of the interplay of economic, cultural, social, political and legal forces. Others factors further cross-border migration are usually considered under two main categories press out factors (Supply) and comfort factors (Demand) (Kline, 2003). Over time the pattern of migration is facilitated through networks that provide prospective migrants with information about job opportunities in cou ntries of destination as well as offer various support to help change after migration (Matin, 2003).Push factors (Supply) these are conditions that make a doctor to be dissatisfied with work and professional careers in their country of origin. The factors may be evident both in the developed and developing countries facilitating the migration of health care professionals from one country to another which is perceive to offer better opportunities in some way. However, these factors are more prominent in developing countries, and they greatly influence the decision of doctors to emigrate in these countries.Pull factors (Demand) these are conditions in countries of destination that egg on workers to migrate. In the same manner as push factors, pull factors can also influence the migration of doctors from one developed country to another developed country. However, the pull factors has a more pronounced influence on individuals in developing countries for instance, there is surge in migration of nurses to Canada after the review of cost ofMedical Brain Drain in evolution CountriesMedical Brain Drain in Developing CountriesCHAPTER ONEBACKGROUNDThe loss of human capital from developing countries to developed countries is not a new phenomenon. It is commonly refer to as brain drain which broadly represents the migration of highly skilled professionals from one country or part of a country to another in search of a better prospect (Sako, 2002). The loss of highly skilled professional attributed to brain drain has been of interest internationally for over four decades (Giannoccolo, 2004). Concern over the international migration of health workers first came to limelight at the Edinburgh Commonwealth Medical Conference in 1965. This situation prompted the World Health Organisation (WHO) in 1970 to examine the global process and flows of doctors and nurses (Mejia, 1978). The report however made little impacts on migration of health workers which has continually been on the increase over the years (Levy, 2003, Pang et al. 2002)The concept of the medical brain drain, that is the migration of doctors and other health professionals from developing economies to developed countries has been the subject of interest and research across a variety of fields including labour economics, human resource studies and human geography (Diallo, 2004, Buchan, 2004 and Stilwell et al., 2004)The migration of medical personnel has been identified by WHO as the most critical problem facing the delivery of health service in developing countries (WHO, 2007), besides the emigration of doctors in particular to other countries have received a more considerable attention (Beecham, 2002)The extent to which health professionals migrate to developed countries has continue to be on the increase in recent years and this has been attributed to an apparent response to demand from the developed countries where medical professional are in short supply to cater for demands due to de mographic changes, aging population, growing income, feminisation of workforce amongst others (Pond and McPake, 2006).Foreign-trained medical and nursing workforces are estimated to account for more than a quarter of health professionals of the Australia, Canada, the US, and the UK (OECD, 2002).The quest for highly skilled professionals has been on the increase in many developed countries. According to statistic report from the Global Atlas of Workforce cited in Pond and McPake, (2006), the United Kingdom (UK) was ranked among the least staffed of high income countries with 166 doctors and 497 nurses per 100,000 populations the second lowest doctors density and the fourth nurses lowest density among the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries. Moreover, as at the year 2000, the UK health system currently require about 10,000 physicians and 20,000 more nurses to meet the demand of the NHS plan (Department of Health, 2000). Between the year 1999 and 200 4 when the targets was achieved earlier than expected, a new target was set to increase the number of nurses by 35000 (10%) and physicians by 15000 (25%) between 2001 and 2008. In order to achieve the new target, several methods were adopted to recruit doctors and nurses from other country to fill the shortage within the NHS. However, the approach created a surge in the international recruitment of health worker (Department of Health, 2004).Conversely, the poor economy condition in the developing countries coupled with poor remunerations, lack of infrastructural facilities, and low morale, emigrating to developed countries by doctors is seen as an opportunity for a better prospect.Furthermore, the continuous rise in disease prevalence, emigration, productivity losses, and shortage of doctors in Sub-Saharan Africa, has resulted in health resource crisis (Aluwihare, 2005). Insufficiency in human capacity for health care delivery in developing countries have been identified as a signif icant factor that is responsible for the inability to achieve the target set by WHO for the treatment of 3 million HIV infected people by year 2005. (This initiative was tagged 3by5) (WHO, 2005). This has also been identified as a major constraint limiting the progress of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Initiatives (IOM, 2005).In response to the migration of health professionals to developed countries and the undermine effect to the economy, social and health status of exporting countries, the Commonwealth Ministers of Health agreed to uphold and keep the Commonwealth values of cooperation, sharing and supporting one another, thus a consensus approach to deal with the problem of international recruitment of health workers was adopted.The Code of Practice for the International Recruitment of Health Workers is intended to provide a framework to governments within which international recruitment should be carried out (Commonwealth Code of Practise, 2003).Similarly, Department of He alth (2004), presented a revised policy on code of practise for international recruitment of health care professionals this demonstrated the concerned of the UK government in protecting the health care system of developing countries. The revised code of practise for recruitment addresses role of private employer and agencies in the international recruitment of health professionals from developing countries (Eastwood et al., 2005).Nevertheless, developing countries have made some effort in preventing the emigration of physician to developed countries. In spite of this, addressing factors that encourage emigration, such as large disparity in remunerations, standards of living, opportunities for career development amongst host other benefits are usually difficult to come by. At the 1998 UN Conference on Trade and Development, WHO study indicated that 56% of doctors from developing countries migrate to developed nations, while only 11% migrate in the opposite direction the imbalance is even greater for nurses. (Chanda, 2002).As a result, further effort is being deployed by developing countries to search for means to manage the migration of the health workforce to developed countries (Hussey, 2007).Despite measures, it may be difficult to totally prevent health professionals from migrating. As the large scale of medical brain drain from developing countries is now having a negative impact on the development process of the health system of those countries, it is however imperative for stakeholders to develop a consequential means to curtail the continual movements of health professionals.Nigeria Health ServicesHistorical BackgroundNigeria, the most populous black nation in the world with a total population of 140 million people (2006 census). As a country with mono-cultural economy, the major source of foreign earnings is from crude oil. The poor level of resources allocated to the health care sector is one of the main factors responsible for the deplorable health c ondition in the country (Campbell, 2007).The public health service in Nigeria started in 1946 with a 10-year colonial administration plan the development came about when treatment was required for soldiers of the West African Frontier Force and the colonial administration staff. In 1975 attempt was made to adopt primary health care under the Basic Health Service Scheme (BHSS). The BHSS aimed to improve the accessibility to heath care in terms location, affordability, increase access to disease prevention and distribution of services, and provision of adaptable health services based on local need and socially acceptable method of technology (Hodges 2001).The Current Health Care System in NigeriaOver the last two decades, the health care system in Nigerias has deteriorated a fact ascribed to the countrys poor governance and leadership which was more pronounced during the military era. This was reflected in budget allocations and the fiscal requirements of the Structural Adjustment Pr ogrammes. The deficient of reliable data makes it difficult to provide a detailed assessment of the degree of financial commitment to the health sector (Ali-Akpjiak and Pyke, 2003).According to World Bank source, Nigeria public spending per capita for the health sector is less than $5 USD and is as low as $2 USD in some parts of the country. This is far below the $34 USD recommended by WHO for developing countries within the Macroeconomics Commission Report. Nevertheless the Federal Government recurrent budget on health showed an increasing trend from 1996 to 1998, a decline in 1999 and started to rise again in 2000, available evidence shows that most of the recurrent expenditure is spent on personnel. The Federal Government recurrent expenditure on health as a share of the total Federal Government recurrent expenditure which stood at 2.55% in 1996, 2.96% in 1997, and 2.99% in 1998, declined to 1.95% in 1999 and 2.5% rose in 2000. Beyond budgetary allocations, there is a wide gap in the available between the budgetary figures and the actual amount of funds released from the treasury for health activities (WHO 2009a).The decline in the Nigeria health sector was accompanied by collapse of institutional capacities, poor remuneration and lack of conducive environment, dilapidated equipment and infrastructure have over the years, job dissatisfaction and low motivation, have led to increase migration of health professionals to seek employment in overseas countries. In a bid to curtail the impasse, Nigeria has subscribed to the Commonwealth Code of Practice for the International Recruitment of Health Workers for which a framework of responsibilities is presently being developed (WHO 2009b).Demographic and Health IndicatorsThe demographic data in Nigeria are not very reliable. Data gathered from various exercises such as census, vital registrations and surveys are often inconsistence and sometimes contradictory. Nonetheless, there is evidence that the key indicators h ave either remained constant or worsened (WHO 2005).Life expectancy declined from 52.6 years for male and 58.8 years for female in 1991 to 45 years and 46 years for both Male and Female respectively in 2004. The infant mortality rate (IMR) in 2004 is 103 per 1000 live births when compared to 87.2 per 1000 live births in 1999. Fifty percent of deaths under 5 years of age have been attributed to malnutrition.The maternal mortality rate (MMR) of 800 per 100,000 births is the second highest in the world after India. This has been attributed partly to shortage of skilled medical personnel. For instance only 41.9 % of primary health facilities is provides antenatal and delivery services. Moreover 57.3% of such health facilities operate without a doctor, midwives or senior community extension worker. The Nigeria health system is one of the worst in sub-Saharan African with a disability life adjusted expectancy of 38.3 years and ranked 187 in the world (WHO 2005)Health Workforce in NigeriaA mong the several challenges facing the health system in Nigeria is the lack of competent health care professionals. This has been attributed to inadequate infrastructures and poor remunerations packages, making a sizeable numbers of doctors, nurses and other medical professionals vulnerable to be lured away to developed countries in search of a fulfilling and lucrative employments (Stilwell and Awofeso, 2004, Raufu, A., 2002)There are 52, 408 Nigerian Doctors registered with the Nigeria Medical Council as at December 2007, There are 128,918 nurses and 90,489 midwives on the register, although only a fraction of these pay the required practicing licensing fee. There are 13,199 pharmacists, 840 radiographers, 1,473 physiotherapists, 12,703 medical laboratory scientists, and 19,268 Community Health Officers. All these health workers are required to pay annual practicing licensing fees however the lists have not been pruned for those have migrated out to foreign countries, deaths, retir ements or those that have left the profession for another career entirely.Health workers are poorly distributed and most are in favour of urban areas, southern, tertiary health care services delivery, and curative care. For some cadres of health workers such as doctors and nurses, more than 50% have their place of work in the South Western part of the country with vast majority residing in the commercial city of Lagos (Labiran et. al, 2008).Medical Brain Drain in NigeriaAmong the countries in sub-Saharan African, Nigeria is a major export of health professionals. An estimated number of 20, 000 health professionals emigrate from Africa annually. A trend that poses threat to sustainable health care delivery in Nigeria. Statistical data on Nigerian doctors who are legally migrating overseas are scarce and unreliable, this is largely due to the fact that most wealthy nations like Australia currently makes it very difficult for overseas trained doctors to practise in their country primar ily on the basis of medical skills. However, hundreds of doctors trained in Nigeria continue to emigrate to developed countries annually (Stilwell and Awofeso, 2004). Better remunerations and medical facilities among other factors are cited as one of the major reason for flight of Nigerian doctors (Raufu, 2002) and also there are limited incentives and encouragement for overseas based Nigerian doctors that is willing to relocate back to the country (Stilwell et al., 2004).Purpose of the studyIn sub-Saharan African, there is has been a significant rise in disease burden, loss of productivity and the emigration of medical doctors to developed counties have resulted in the in dearth of the most required health resource (Aluwihare, 2005). Most studies on medical brain drain have examined the subject from the perspective of recipient developed countries and little attention has been paid to the donor developing countries. Thus, scarcity of data from developing country makes it difficult to fully describe the impact of migration on countries of origin (Hagopian et al., 2004). Most studies on doctors migration from Sub-Saharan African have tended to focus on numbers, without exploring the underlying reason for migration, assessing the potential negative impact of migration on the health care systems, or considering means to alleviate the problem. In actual fact, information regarding the extent of migration is usually obtained through data from countries of destination (Stilwell et al 2003).The migration of medical doctors from Nigeria and other countries in sub-Saharan African generates three areas of major concern. The first is a loss of the basic health services available to the citizen. for instance, Ghana, faced with a ratio of nine doctors to every 100 000 patients and no more than 22 paediatrician are licensed to practise in country and no more than 10 specialists of any kind practising in the remote area. Similarly, Nigeria lack adequate doctors to care for t he sick especially patients residing in the rural communitiesThe second effect doctor migration from Nigeria is that it prevent the health sectors the ability to organize and expand. Public health institutions heavily depend on doctors to lead, develop and promote them as they work to advance health care delivery. As obtained in US, doctors are well positioned to serve their organisation by actively involved in managing resources and articulating priorities. It is therefore speculated that as the numbers of available medical doctors in developing countries reduces.The third challenges are that doctors migration depletes a significant element of the middle class in developing countries. As in the developed countries, medical doctors in African comprise of an important segment of the social and economic make up of the middle class. They are generally accorded a lot of respect in the society, as being above corruption, they advocate for improvement in quality of education of public sch ools and they play a vital role in political (Hagopian et al., 2005). In Nigeria, over 70.2% of the population lives on $1 per day (WHO, 2006)Research aim and objectivesThe aim of this study is to analyse the causes of medical brain drain from developing countries, benefits and burdens associated with brain drain based largely on the views of Nigerian doctors practising in UK.The objectives areTo identify the factors that influence the decision of medical doctors to migrate to developed countries migrationTo identify the impacts of migration on healthcare in developing countriesCHAPTER TWOLITERATURE REVIEWConcept of Brian DrainBrain drain has been defined by many analysts in different ways. It is not surprising the social phenomenon has been examined and analysed from different perspective, based on their general orientation and or awareness of the subject.Brain drain will be conceived in this study as the loss of medical professionals or significant number of human capital within t he health care system to other sector of the economy or country.Migration of skilled professionals differs from one country to another and from time to time it is however misleading to generalise the possible impacts of migration in developing countries. Moreover, it can be argued that various studies have attempted to measure the phenomenon from different perspective. Single analytic measurement cannot be used to justify all migration although migration of highly skilled professionals from developing countries has been attributed to various factors which political, social and economical factors account for a significant reasons behind the phenomenon (AUN report, 2002).The migration of highly skilled workers can justify the use of the term brain drain however the expression should be used cautiously. Replacing drain by a more common and value expression such as migration may generate alternate meaning. The difference in the word may be heightened by saying while all brain drains con stitute brain migration notwithstanding, brain migration may not necessarily refer to brain drain.Brain drain denote the de-facto transfer of resources spent on impacting education and developing both technical and professional skills of the drained brain in question by the parent (donor) country to the (recipient) country of transfer. The developed countries thus save financial resources on education and professional training and invariably obtain the service of professionals such as doctors, nurses, engineers, scientists who earn more than their colleague in developing countries with a better comfortable living environment (Glaser and Habers, 1978).Several efforts have been made to define the concept of brain drain, most especially by international organisation. According to United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO report, 1969), the brain drain could be defined as an abnormal form of scientific exchange between countries, characterized by a one- wa y flow in favour of the most highly developed countries. Approximately four decades later, the definition of brain drain has undergone no significant change with a lot of highly skilled workers still leaving the shores of developing countries in pursuit of greener pastures in the developed nations. Medical doctors, engineers and scientists usually tend to predominate or account for a larger proportion among the migrants. Their higher the level of skills or professional qualification, make them more susceptible to migration.Gillis, et al. (1987) suggested two main reasons why brain drain is detestable to most developing countries. The first is that the calibres of people that migrate represent one of the scarce human resources in these developing countries and secondly the amount of resources, financial cost and time involve in educating these group of people is expensive and heavily subsidise by the government. Such migration to foreign country therefore becomes expensive and costly to the donor countries. In most cases the developing countries completely loose these highly skill professionals to the developed countries (Edokat, 2000). This phenomenon has generated a lot of arguments that have been advanced for or against brain drain however this is not a concern for this study. All that can be concluded is that migration of highly skilled workers from developing countries to develop countries creates a vacuum in the former countries (Edokat, 2000).Types of brain drainPrimary external brain drain occurs when trained professional or skilled human resources emigrate from their country of origin to work in developed countries such as America, Europe and Australia.Secondary external brain drain occurs when a trained professional or skilled human resources leave their country or any other less developed country to work in a another developing country such as Botswana, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Namibia.Internal brain drain occurs when a trained professional or s killed or skilled human resources seek for employment in a field not related to his to his/her expertise or when such individual migrate from the public sector to private sector or to another sector within a particular country. While this may pose a problem for a country, it is however not a loss of human resource to the country or the continent.Brain Drain TheoriesThese theories are based on general migration approaches. In brain drain discussion, these approaches have been referred to briefly or summarized. Occasionally specific remarks will be made to provide more clarity regarding the theories.It is however important to state that nearly the theoretical outlook consists of specific mix of different theories or based on the nature of the dominating factors. On the other hand, the scientific approach in which the theories were founded. Another approach in the use of division based on the level Micro, Meso or Macro. These groups cover greater number of theoretical approaches (Oder th, 2002).This level has been defined asMicro level the decision making of individual is affected by his or her motives, circumstances and access to information.Meso level an aspect of social ties that affects migration such as the effect of network of friends and relatives on migrationMacro level opportunities and constraints available at societal level which include political, socio-cultural and economical factorsThere is no Grand theory linked with research on brain drain although attempts have been made to integrate the subject with economic and social theory, spatial analysis and social science (Kangasniemi et. al., 2004). The study of brain drain and other behaviour by demographers was able to draw insights from other disciplines such as statistics, history, economy, medicine and anthropology (Oderth 2001). A common example is the push and pull model of labour mobility. The model states that individual migration decision is a combination of family, economic, social and poli tical factors. Categories of factors identified to be affecting migration include 1) Factors at the point of origin, 2) Factors at point of destination, 3) Intervening obstacles and 4) personal circumstances. The push and pull model has been widely used by scholars in studies. Economic factors of employment and material benefits are regarded to have the strongest influence on migration decision (Oderth 2002)Despite the frequent use of the push and pull model approach in migration literature, the approach has been seen as too mechanical and rational choice based and with less consideration for intervening obstacles or institutional and structural constraints (Massey et al, 1993). Most migration tends to be unidirectional from poor to rich nations. The rate of emigration also differs vary considerately between countries and regions on similar economic level and the poorest or the less educated people hardly ever move. A major challenge for the migration is lack of insights in the inte rconnectedness of all the processes (Kangasniemi et. al., 2004)Another model is the migration system approach it involves formation of a link that encourages migration between a sender and receivers which are strengthened over a period of time. Such links include economic, political and cultural interaction often based on historical activities. Once a link has been created between the migrant places subsequent migration is facilitated through the links.The migration system approach emphasis that social network of the migration provides the intending migrants with information and assistance to ease migration. An important feature of such system is that immigration to a country is directed to specific regions. Such migration is partly dependent on specific areas (Gillis, et al. (1987)).The scope of medical brain drainThe World Health Report (2006) estimated that an approximately 817,992 (138%) health workers would be required In Africa to achieve the coverage of basic health interven tions.The rate at which doctors and other health professional migrate differs from country to country. Nevertheless, the pattern of migration shares certain similarities. The severe shortage of doctors particularly in rural health facilities has critical negative effects on accessibility and equitable distribution of health care in sub-Saharan African (Ovberedjo, 2007).Studying a specific group of employments from a pool of migration statistics revealed a substantial net loss of human capital among certain key profession in sub-Saharan African. An obvious and highly skilled professional to emerge from such analysis are medical doctors (SOPEMI, 2008). This particular phenomenon can be described as Medical Brain Drain. However, to what extent doctors migrated from sub Saharan African to developed countries?This section will review the scope of migration among doctors in sub Saharan African. Medical brain drain is important and deserves consideration because it is obvious that any de crease in the labour supply among doctors in any country is bound to generate a significant negative impact on the health system of that particular country.In year 2000, statistical data revealed an average of 18.2% of employed doctors working in OECD countries were foreigners. The United States has the largest number of doctors (about 200,000) born and trained in foreign countries followed by the United Kingdom which account for almost 50,000 and France about 34,000. Health worker in India and Philippine formed a greater percentage of the immigrant health workforce OECD countries. In addition, doctors from India account for 56,000 of foreign born doctors practising in OECD countries while nurses of Philippine origin account for about 110, 000. These represent about 15% each of the total (SOPEMI, 2008).The French and the Portuguese African speaking countries contribute some of the highest emigration rate to OECD countries for medical doctors some of other African countries such as G uinea Bissau, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Carpe Verde, Congo, Benin and Togo rank between 17th and 23rd places with emigration rate of 40%, while the English speaking countries in African such as Malawi, Kenya and Ghana have lower emigration rate ranked 25th, 28th and 38th respectively. South African and Nigeria were the only two countries in sub-Saharan African among the top 25 countries with foreign doctors and nurses practising in the OECD countries. This was due to the fact that most African countries have smaller population of workforce (SOPEMI, 2007).Statistical data from the American Medical Association (AMA) Physician Master file shows that 5, 334 non-federal trained doctors trained in Africa medical schools were licensed to practise medicine in the United States in 2002. Nigeria account for 2,158, while South Africa 1,943 doctors. Another 478 doctors are from Ghana medical schools. Other countries contributing to the list in sub-Saharan African include Ethiopia 257 phy sician, Uganda 153 doctors, and Kenya 93 doctors. The total number of 5,334 represents 6% of the total number African doctors (Hagopian et al. 2004).After United States, the United Kingdom and Canada are the most common destinations in developed countries for African Physicians, with a total of 3,451 and 2, 151 African trained doctors are recorded to be practising in United Kingdom and Canada respectively. Moreover figures in the UK include only doctors who arrived after 1992 thus the number may probably be higher, other destinations for African-trained doctors include Australia, New Zealand and the Gulf States (Hagopian et al. 2003)Migration of doctors also occurs between countries within African continent. For instance, countries such as South Africa, Senegal and Botswana export doctors to developed countries and likewise import doctors from other African countries to cater for shortfall in medical personnel (EQUINET, 2003).Causes of Brain DrainThe factors guiding individual cho ice of migration is in essence personal and thus susceptible to the prevailing personal circumstances. Nonetheless, the economic and social context of such decision deserves an important consideration. Moreover, the disparity between the economic and social development status of different sectors within a particular country and of different countries within African has countries has broaden over the year (Stilwell, 2004).Brain drain of doctors and other highly skilled professional from Africa has been blame on unfulfilled dream at country of origin caused by strife, corruption and misuse that mark Africas post-colonial history (Bridgewater, 2003 cited in Mbanefoh, 2007). Also according to Dovlo (2003), causes can be linked using six gradients which include job satisfaction, salary, career opportunity, governance, social security and benefit, protection and risk. Furthermore the dualistic nature of the world economy has been found to be a major contributing factor to brain drain, as highly skilled medical professionals particularly doctors try to escape the endemic poverty by migrating to wealthy, developed and technologically advanced countries of the world (Mbanefoh, 2007).Factors guiding individual decision to emigrate are a result of the interplay of economic, cultural, social, political and legal forces. Others factors encouraging cross-border migration are usually considered under two main categories Push factors (Supply) and Pull factors (Demand) (Kline, 2003). Over time the pattern of migration is facilitated through networks that provide prospective migrants with information about job opportunities in countries of destination as well as offer various support to help adjustment after migration (Matin, 2003).Push factors (Supply) these are conditions that make a doctor to be dissatisfied with work and professional careers in their country of origin. The factors may be evident both in the developed and developing countries facilitating the migration of h ealth care professionals from one country to another which is perceive to offer better opportunities in some way. However, these factors are more prominent in developing countries, and they greatly influence the decision of doctors to emigrate in these countries.Pull factors (Demand) these are conditions in countries of destination that motivate workers to migrate. In the same manner as push factors, pull factors can also influence the migration of doctors from one developed country to another developed country. However, the pull factors has a more pronounced influence on individuals in developing countries for instance, there is surge in migration of nurses to Canada after the review of cost of